Main Article Content
Abstract
Abstract
Background Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represent major public health challenges globally, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where infection prevention and control (IPC) systems are often under-resourced. Hospital environmental surfaces may act as reservoirs for pathogenic and multidrug-resistant bacteria, contributing to indirect transmission through healthcare workers, patients, and equipment. However, data from African settings remain limited, constraining evidence-informed environmental hygiene and AMR containment strategies. Methods
We conducted a cross-sectional microbiological survey of hospital environmental surfaces in a tertiary referral hospital in Yaoundé, Cameroon, in 2022. Surface samples were collected from high-touch areas across clinical wards, including internal medicine, surgery, paediatrics, and intensive care units (ICUs). Swabs were cultured using standard microbiological techniques. Isolates were identified using conventional methods, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed by disk diffusion according to international guidelines. Multidrug-resistant organism (MDRO) phenotypes were assessed, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), extended-spectrum beta-lactamase–producing Enterobacterales (ESBL), and AmpCphenotypes. Results. Overall, 84% of sampled surfaces were contaminated with at least one bacterial species, and multiple organisms were frequently recovered from single surfaces. Gram-negative bacteria predominated, with Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter spp., and Escherichia coli commonly isolated. Human-skin–associated bacteria accounted for 59.5% of isolates, consistent with frequent contact between surfaces and patients or healthcare workers. All Staphylococcus aureus isolates were methicillin-resistant. Among Enterobacterales, 23.5% displayed an ESBL phenotype and 14.7% an AmpC phenotype. Contamination and resistance burdens varied by ward, with the highest levels observed in ICUs and surgical units. Conclusion. Hospital environmental surfaces in this tertiary hospital harboured a high burden of multidrug-resistant bacteria. Environmental contamination is an under-recognized component of AMR and HAI risk in African hospitals. Routine environmental surveillance and strengthened environmental hygiene should be integrated into IPC and AMR strategies to improve patient safety and quality of care
Résumé
Contexte. Les infections associées aux soins (IAS) et la résistance aux antimicrobiens (RAM) constituent des défis majeurs de santé publique à l’échelle mondiale, en particulier dans les pays à revenu faible et intermédiaire où les systèmes de prévention et de contrôle des infections (PCI) sont souvent insuffisamment dotés. Les surfaces environnementales hospitalières peuvent agir comme des réservoirs de bactéries pathogènes et multirésistantes, contribuant à une transmission indirecte via les soignants, les patients et les équipements. Toutefois, les données issues des contextes africains demeurent limitées, freinant l’élaboration de stratégies fondées sur des preuves pour l’hygiène environnementale et la maîtrise de la RAM. Méthodes.
Nous avons mené une enquête microbiologique transversale sur les surfaces environnementales hospitalières dans un hôpital de référence tertiaire à Yaoundé (Cameroun) en 2022. Des prélèvements de surfaces ont été réalisés sur des zones à fort contact dans différents services cliniques, notamment la médecine interne, la chirurgie, la pédiatrie et les unités de soins intensifs (USI). Les écouvillons ont été cultivés selon des techniques microbiologiques standards. Les isolats ont été identifiés par des méthodes conventionnelles et la sensibilité aux antimicrobiens a été évaluée par diffusion sur disque conformément aux recommandations internationales. Les phénotypes de bactéries multirésistantes ont été recherchés, incluant le Staphylococcus aureus résistant à la méticilline (SARM), les entérobactéries productrices de bêta-lactamases à spectre étendu (BLSE) et les phénotypes AmpC. Résultats.
Au total, 84 % des surfaces échantillonnées étaient contaminées par au moins une espèce bactérienne, et la présence de plusieurs microorganismes sur une même surface était fréquente. Les bactéries à Gram négatif prédominaient, avec une forte représentation de Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter spp. Et Escherichia coli. Les bactéries associées à la flore cutanée humaine représentaient 59,5 % des isolats, suggérant des contacts fréquents entre les surfaces, les patients et les agents de santé. Tous les isolats de Staphylococcus aureus étaient résistants à la méticilline. Parmi les entérobactéries, 23,5 % présentaient un phénotype BLSE et 14,7 % un phénotype AmpC. Les niveaux de contamination et de résistance variaient selon les services, avec les charges les plus élevées observées en USI et en chirurgie. Conclusion.
Les surfaces environnementales hospitalières de cet hôpital tertiaire hébergent une charge élevée de bactéries multirésistantes. La contamination environnementale constitue une composante sous-estimée du risque d’IAS et de RAM dans les hôpitaux africains. La mise en place d’une surveillance environnementale de routine et le renforcement des pratiques d’hygiène environnementale devraient être intégrés aux stratégies de PCI et de lutte contre la RAM afin d’améliorer la sécurité des patients et la qualité des soins
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References
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- 13. Nteungue, B. A. K., Tandi, E., Bilounga Ndongo, C., Bissouma-Ledjou, T., Acho, A., Campbell, J., Ndougou, D. R., Habimana, R., Myriam, A. S., Nteungue, B. B. K., Yannick, O., Bitang, L. J., Mballa, G. A. E., & Boum, Y. (2024). Status of infection prevention and control in Cameroon healthcare facilities: lessons learned from the WHO COVID-19 scorecard tool under the hierarchy of control model. Infection Prevention in Practice, 6(4), 100407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infpip.2024.100407
- 14. Okeke, I. N., de Kraker, M. E. A., Van Boeckel, T. P., Kumar, C. K., Schmitt, H., Gales, A. C., Bertagnolio, S., Sharland, M., & Laxminarayan, R. (2024). The scope of the antimicrobial resistance challenge. In The Lancet (Vol. 403, Issue 10442, pp. 2426–2438). Elsevier B.V. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(24)00876-6
- 15. Peñalva, G., Cantón, R., Pérez-Rodríguez, M. T., González-López, J. J., Rodríguez-Baño, J., Barrio-Tofiño, E. del, Kirkegaard-Biosca, C., Sánchez-Romero, I., Gutiérrez-Villanueva, A., Marrodán-Ciordia, T., Guerra-Laso, J. M., Rosario-Quintana, C. del, Suárez-Hormiga, L., Cámara, J., Puig-Asensio, M., Heredero, E., Sepúlveda, M. A., Rodríguez-Díaz, J. C., Merino, E., … Paño-Pardo, J. R. (2025). Burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance among hospitalised patients in Spain: findings from three nationwide prospective studies. The Lancet Regional Health - Europe, 51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2025.101220
- 16. Prasek, K., Kiersnowska, I., Wójkowska-Mach, J., Różańska, A., Romaniszyn, D., Foryciarz, E., Kwiećkowska, L. B., & Krzych-Fałta, E. (2025). Microbial Contamination on High-Touch Surfaces in Outpatient Clinics: Identification of Bacterial Strains from Areas of Patient and Medical Staff Occupancy. Microorganisms, 13(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13030698
- 17. Sebre, S., Abegaz, W. E., Seman, A., Awoke, T., Desalegn, Z., Mihret, W., Mihret, A., & Abebe, T. (2020). Bacterial profiles and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of isolates from inanimate hospital environments at Tikur Anbessa Specialized Teaching Hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Infection and Drug Resistance, 13, 4439–4448. https://doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S286293
- 18. Singh, K. V., Puraswani, M., Ningombam, A., Ashita, A., Thomas, J. M., Ambashta, N. K., Deuri, R. R., Sam, S., Ranic, D., Victor, D., Gunjiyal, J., Farooque, K., & Mathur, P. (2025). Environmental sampling reveals reservoirs of antimicrobial resistance in a tertiary care Indian hospital: an observational study to strengthen infection control practices. IJID Regions, 17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijregi.2025.100782
- 19. Vigny, N. N., & Shu, B. F. (2024). Bacteria profiles and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of isolates from beds and door handles of hospital wards in Tiko Health District, Cameroon. Pan African Medical Journal , 49. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2024.49.85.41817
References
1. Abourrich, M., Mourabit, N., El Barghmi, R., Boussa, S., Ghalit, M., & El Ouarghi, H. (2025). Evaluation of bacterial pathogens and their antibiotic resistance on surfaces in the Mohammed V hospital, Al-Hoceima, Morocco. Journal of Infection in Developing Countries, 19(10), 1464–1469. https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.19128
2. Beye, S. A., Maiga, A., Cissoko, Y., Guindo, I., Dicko, O. A., Maiga, M., Abeghe, A. T. A., Diakité, M., Diallo, B., Dao, S., Coulibaly, Y., & Fofana, D. B. (2024). Prevalence of nosocomial infections at the Centre Hospitalier Universitaire du Point G in Bamako, Mali HHS Public Access. In Rev Mali Infect Microbiol (Vol. 19, Issue 1).
3. Boum, Y., Bebell, L. M., & Bisseck, A. C. Z. K. (2021). Africa needs local solutions to face the COVID-19 pandemic. The Lancet, 397(10281), 1238–1240. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00719-4
4. Darge, A., Kahsay, A. G., Hailekiros, H., Niguse, S., & Abdulkader, M. (2019). Bacterial contamination and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of intensive care units medical equipment and inanimate surfaces at Ayder Comprehensive Specialized Hospital, Mekelle, Northern Ethiopia. BMC Research Notes, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-019-4658-5
5. Gonsu, K. H., Guenou, E., Toukam, M., Ndze, V. N., Mbakop, C. D., Tankeu, D. N., Mbopi-Keou, F. X., & Takongmo, S. (2015). Bacteriological assessment of the hospital environment in two referral hospitals in Yaoundé-Cameroon. The Pan African Medical Journal, 20, 224. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2015.20.224.4433
6. Grassly, N. C., Shaw, A. G., & Owusu, M. (2025). Global wastewater surveillance for pathogens with pandemic potential: opportunities and challenges. The Lancet Microbe, 6(1), 100939. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanmic.2024.07.002
7. Ho, C. S., Wong, C. T. H., Aung, T. T., Lakshminarayanan, R., Mehta, J. S., Rauz, S., McNally, A., Kintses, B., Peacock, S. J., de la Fuente-Nunez, C., Hancock, R. E. W., & Ting, D. S. J. (2025). Antimicrobial resistance: a concise update. The Lancet Microbe, 6(1), 100947. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanmic.2024.07.010
8. Jim O’Neill. (2014). Antimicrobial Resistance: Tackling a crisis for the health and wealth of nations. https://amr-review.org/sites/default/files/AMR%20Review%20Paper%20-%20Tackling%20a%20crisis%20for%20the%20health%20and%20wealth%20of%20nations_1.pdf
9. Keshaviah, A., Diamond, M. B., Wade, M. J., Scarpino, S. V, Ahmed, W., Amman, F., Aruna, O., Badilla-Aguilar, A., Bar-Or, I., Bergthaler, A., Bines, J. E., Bivins, A. W., Boehm, A. B., Brault, J.-M., Burnet, J.-B., Chapman, J. R., Chaudhuri, A., de Roda Husman, A. M., Delatolla, R., … Zanoli Sato, M. I. (2023). Wastewater monitoring can anchor global disease surveillance systems. The Lancet Global Health, 11(6), e976–e981. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(23)00170-5
10. Leistner, R., Kohlmorgen, B., Brodzinski, A., Schwab, F., Lemke, E., Zakonsky, G., & Gastmeier, P. (2023). Environmental cleaning to prevent hospital-acquired infections on non-intensive care units: a pragmatic, single-centre, cluster randomized controlled, crossover trial comparing soap-based, disinfection and probiotic cleaning. EClinicalMedicine, 59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2023.101958
11. Melariri, H., Freercks, R., van der Merwe, E., Ham-Baloyi, W. Ten, Oyedele, O., Murphy, R. A., Claasen, C., Etusim, P. E., Achebe, M. O., Offiah, S., & Melariri, P. E. (2024). The burden of hospital-acquired infections (HAI) in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine, 71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.102571
12. Ndoungue, V., Fossouo, V., & Sadeuh-mba, S. (2020). The Joint External Evaluation process in Cameroon : Assessing the country ’ s capacity for health security. 1–14. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340200141_The_Joint_External_Evaluation_process_in_Cameroon_Assessing_the_country’s_capacity_for_health_security
13. Nteungue, B. A. K., Tandi, E., Bilounga Ndongo, C., Bissouma-Ledjou, T., Acho, A., Campbell, J., Ndougou, D. R., Habimana, R., Myriam, A. S., Nteungue, B. B. K., Yannick, O., Bitang, L. J., Mballa, G. A. E., & Boum, Y. (2024). Status of infection prevention and control in Cameroon healthcare facilities: lessons learned from the WHO COVID-19 scorecard tool under the hierarchy of control model. Infection Prevention in Practice, 6(4), 100407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infpip.2024.100407
14. Okeke, I. N., de Kraker, M. E. A., Van Boeckel, T. P., Kumar, C. K., Schmitt, H., Gales, A. C., Bertagnolio, S., Sharland, M., & Laxminarayan, R. (2024). The scope of the antimicrobial resistance challenge. In The Lancet (Vol. 403, Issue 10442, pp. 2426–2438). Elsevier B.V. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(24)00876-6
15. Peñalva, G., Cantón, R., Pérez-Rodríguez, M. T., González-López, J. J., Rodríguez-Baño, J., Barrio-Tofiño, E. del, Kirkegaard-Biosca, C., Sánchez-Romero, I., Gutiérrez-Villanueva, A., Marrodán-Ciordia, T., Guerra-Laso, J. M., Rosario-Quintana, C. del, Suárez-Hormiga, L., Cámara, J., Puig-Asensio, M., Heredero, E., Sepúlveda, M. A., Rodríguez-Díaz, J. C., Merino, E., … Paño-Pardo, J. R. (2025). Burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance among hospitalised patients in Spain: findings from three nationwide prospective studies. The Lancet Regional Health - Europe, 51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2025.101220
16. Prasek, K., Kiersnowska, I., Wójkowska-Mach, J., Różańska, A., Romaniszyn, D., Foryciarz, E., Kwiećkowska, L. B., & Krzych-Fałta, E. (2025). Microbial Contamination on High-Touch Surfaces in Outpatient Clinics: Identification of Bacterial Strains from Areas of Patient and Medical Staff Occupancy. Microorganisms, 13(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13030698
17. Sebre, S., Abegaz, W. E., Seman, A., Awoke, T., Desalegn, Z., Mihret, W., Mihret, A., & Abebe, T. (2020). Bacterial profiles and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of isolates from inanimate hospital environments at Tikur Anbessa Specialized Teaching Hospital, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Infection and Drug Resistance, 13, 4439–4448. https://doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S286293
18. Singh, K. V., Puraswani, M., Ningombam, A., Ashita, A., Thomas, J. M., Ambashta, N. K., Deuri, R. R., Sam, S., Ranic, D., Victor, D., Gunjiyal, J., Farooque, K., & Mathur, P. (2025). Environmental sampling reveals reservoirs of antimicrobial resistance in a tertiary care Indian hospital: an observational study to strengthen infection control practices. IJID Regions, 17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijregi.2025.100782
19. Vigny, N. N., & Shu, B. F. (2024). Bacteria profiles and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of isolates from beds and door handles of hospital wards in Tiko Health District, Cameroon. Pan African Medical Journal , 49. https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2024.49.85.41817
