Main Article Content

Abstract

ABSTRACT
Introduction. Malaria rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) are central to malaria case management in sub-Saharan Africa and are widely used at primary healthcare level. While the analytical performance of RDTs has been extensively evaluated under controlled conditions, less attention has been paid to the impact of human errors during routine use. These errors may compromise diagnostic accuracy, lead to inappropriate treatment, and undermine malaria control efforts. Methods. We conducted a descriptive cross-sectional study at a primary healthcare facility in Mimboman, Yaoundé, Cameroon. Direct observation of healthcare workers performing malaria RDTs was carried out using a standardized checklist covering pre-analytical, analytical, and post-analytical phases of testing. Compliance with national guidelines and manufacturer-recommended procedures was assessed. Frequencies and types of errors were calculated and categorized by diagnostic phase and potential impact on test accuracy. Results. A high frequency of human errors was observed during routine use of malaria RDTs. Errors were most frequent during the analytical phase, accounting for 72% of all recorded errors. Common issues included failure to respect the recommended reading time (48%), incorrect volume of blood or buffer applied (31%), and inappropriate interpretation of test results (22%). In the pre-analytical phase, failure to check RDT expiration dates was observed in 76% of procedures. Post-analytical errors included incomplete documentation and discordance between test results and treatment decisions. The overall non-compliance rate with standard operating procedures was 22%. Conclusion. Human errors during malaria RDT use are frequent in this primary healthcare setting and may significantly affect diagnostic reliability, quality of care, and malaria control. Strengthening training, supervision, and quality assurance systems is essential to maximize the public health impact of malaria RDTs. Addressing the human factor is as critical as ensuring access to diagnostic technologies for effective malaria control.
RÉSUMÉ
Introduction. Les tests de diagnostic rapide (TDR) du paludisme sont au cœur de la prise en charge des cas en Afrique subsaharienne et sont largement utilisés au niveau des soins de santé primaires. Si leurs performances analytiques ont été largement évaluées dans des conditions contrôlées, l’impact des erreurs humaines lors de leur utilisation en routine reste insuffisamment documenté. Ces erreurs peuvent compromettre la fiabilité diagnostique, conduire à des traitements inappropriés et affaiblir les efforts de lutte contre le paludisme. Méthodes. Nous avons mené une étude descriptive transversale dans une formation sanitaire de premier niveau à Mimboman, à Yaoundé (Cameroun). L’utilisation des TDR du paludisme par les agents de santé a été observée directement à l’aide d’une grille standardisée couvrant les phases pré-analytique, analytique et post-analytique du diagnostic. La conformité aux directives nationales et aux recommandations des fabricants a été évaluée. Les fréquences et types d’erreurs ont été analysés selon la phase diagnostique et leur impact potentiel sur l’exactitude des résultats. Résultats. Une fréquence élevée d’erreurs humaines a été observée lors de l’utilisation courante des TDR du paludisme. La majorité des erreurs survenait pendant la phase analytique (72 %), notamment le non-respect du temps de lecture recommandé (48 %), l’application d’un volume incorrect de sang ou de tampon (31 %) et une interprétation inappropriée des résultats (22 %). En phase pré-analytique, l’absence de vérification de la date de péremption des tests a été constatée dans 76 % des procédures. Les erreurs post-analytiques comprenaient une documentation incomplète et des discordances entre les résultats des tests et les décisions thérapeutiques. Le taux global de non-conformité aux procédures opératoires standard était de 22 %. Conclusion. Les erreurs humaines lors de l’utilisation des TDR du paludisme sont fréquentes dans ce contexte de soins primaires et peuvent affecter de manière significative la fiabilité diagnostique, la qualité des soins et les stratégies de contrôle du paludisme. Le renforcement de la formation, de la supervision et des systèmes d’assurance qualité est essentiel pour maximiser l’impact de santé publique des TDR. La prise en compte du facteur humain est aussi déterminante que l’accès aux technologies diagnostiques pour une lutte efficace contre le paludisme.

Keywords

Paludisme, Test de diagnostic rapide (TDR), Erreur humaine, Qualité des soins, Soins de santé primaires, Cameroun Malaria, Rapid Diagnostic Test (RDT), Human error, Quality of care, Primary healthcare, Cameroon.

Article Details

How to Cite
Yap Boum, Hiala Wala, Baiye William Abange, Esther Voundi Voundi, Linda Esso, & Hortense Gonsu. (2026). Human Errors Affecting Malaria Rapid Diagnostic Test Performance in a Primary Healthcare Facility in Cameroon: Implications for Quality of Care and Malaria Control: Erreurs Humaines Affectant la Performance des Tests de Diagnostic Rapide du Paludisme dans une Formation Sanitaire de Premier Recours au Cameroun : Implications pour la Qualité des Soins et la Lutte Contre le Paludisme. HEALTH SCIENCES AND DISEASE, 27(2). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18336359

References

  1. 1. Antonio-Nkondjio, C., Ndo, C., Njiokou, F., Bigoga, J. D., Awono-Ambene, P., Etang, J., Ekobo, A. S., & Wondji, C. S. 2019. Review of malaria situation in Cameroon: Technical viewpoint on challenges and prospects for disease elimination. In Parasites and Vectors Vol. 12, Issue 1. BioMed Central Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-019-3753-8
  2. 2. Baartmans, M. C., Hooftman, J., Zwaan, L., Van Schoten, S. M., Jaap, J., Erwich, H. M., & Wagner, C. 2022. What Can We Learn from In-Depth Analysis of Human Errors Resulting in Diagnostic Errors in the Emergency Department: An Analysis of Serious Adverse Event Reports Introduction: Human error plays a vital role in diagnostic errors in the. http://links.lww.
  3. 3. Berkhout, C., Berbra, O., Favre, J., Collins, C., Calafiore, M., Peremans, L., & Van Royen, P. 2022. Defining and evaluating the Hawthorne effect in primary care, a systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Medicine, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2022.1033486
  4. 4. Boum, Y., & Erondu, N. A. 2025. Reinforcing resilience: confronting the consequences of global malaria aid cuts in Africa. The Lancet, 405(10496), 2184–2186. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01034-7
  5. 5. Hooftman, J., Dijkstra, A. C., Suurmeijer, I., Van Der Bij, A., Paap, E., & Zwaan, L. 2024. Common contributing factors of diagnostic error: A retrospective analysis of 109 serious adverse event reports from Dutch hospitals. BMJ Quality and Safety, 33(10), 642–651. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjqs-2022-015876
  6. 6. Kigozi, R. N., Bwanika, J. B., Goodwin, E., Thomas, P., Bukoma, P., Nabyonga, P., Isabirye, F., Oboth, P., Kyozira, C., Niang, M., Belay, K., Sebikaari, G., Tibenderana, J. K., & Gudoi, S. S. 2021. Determinants of malaria testing at health facilities: the case of Uganda. Malaria Journal, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-021-03992-9
  7. 7. Lacerda, M. V. G., & Bassat, Q. 2025. Mapping the malaria burden in the context of a global pandemic: progress, hiccups, and challenges. The Lancet, 405(10483), 952–953. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(25)00418-0
  8. 8. Martiáñez-Vendrell, X., Skjefte, M., Sikka, R., & Gupta, H. 2022. Factors Affecting the Performance of HRP2-Based Malaria Rapid Diagnostic Tests. In Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease Vol. 7, Issue 10. MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed7100265
  9. 9. Ngou, O., Nzoumbou-Boko, R., Bakamba, P., & Boum, Y. 2024. R21/Matrix-M malaria vaccine: a vital tool in the arsenal against malaria, not a silver bullet. In The Lancet Infectious Diseases Vol. 24, Issue 5, pp. 438–439. Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(24)00010-0
  10. 10. Ngum, N. H., Fakeh, N. B., Lem, A. E., & Mahamat, O. 2023. Prevalence of malaria and associated clinical manifestations and myeloperoxidase amongst populations living in different altitudes of Mezam division, North West Region, Cameroon. Malaria Journal, 22(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-022-04438-6
  11. 11. Ojeniyi, F. D., Ayoola, A. O., Ibitoye, O., Opaleye, O. O., Olowe, O. A., Ehigie, L. O., Thomas, B. N., & Ojurongbe, O. 2025. Performance and challenges of malaria rapid diagnostic tests in endemic regions of Africa. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 43663. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-97259-x
  12. 12. Rennie, W., Phetsouvanh, R., Lupisan, S., Vanisaveth, V., Hongvanthong, B., Phompida, S., Alday, P., Fulache, M., Lumagui, R., Jorgensen, P., Bell, D., & Harvey, S. 2007. Minimising human error in malaria rapid diagnosis: clarity of written instructions and health worker performance. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 101(1), 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2006.03.011
  13. 13. Sedgwick, P., & Greenwood, N. 2015. Understanding the Hawthorne effect. BMJ, h4672. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h4672
  14. 14. Ssewante, N, Namuganga, J F, Katahoire, A, Musoke, J, Mutesi, N, Humes, M, Griffith, K, Aponte, JJ, Soebiyanto, R, Cooper, S, Agaba, B, Opigo, J, Lindblade, KA, & Mpimbaza, A 2025. Accuracy of recording of malaria rapid diagnostic test results in Uganda. Malaria Journal , 24(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-025-05637-7
  15. 15. Wilson, S, Ah, Y, & Aidoo, M 2025. The effects of introduced procedural errors on malaria rapid diagnostic test performance in a laboratory setting. Malaria Journal , 24(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-025-05647-5

Most read articles by the same author(s)